Effekte, Determinanten und Konsequenzen von Geschlechterdifferenzen in der Schule, eds P. H. Ludwig and H. Ludwig (Weinheim: Juventa), 61–81. Early determinants of women in the IT workforce: a model of girls' career choices. Also, result from the qualitative study indicate that there is a special need to behave in the domain. Examples include: they/them/theirs; ze/hir/hirs; ze/zir/zirs; xe/xem/xyrs; Gender nonconforming J. Educ. (2006). Furthermore, one student reported her mother encouraging her to re-think her career decision for STEM which stresses the impact of significant others in career decisions (see also Xu, 2016). Each of these models is discussed briefly below. The self is socially constructed in the sense that it is shaped through interaction with other people. doi: 10.1177/0165025415616201, Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S., and Linn, M. C. (2010). Mok, S. Y., and Ertl, B. These may relate to interesting and gender-sensitive classes (Faulstich-Wieland et al., 2008; Ertl and Helling, 2011), role modeling (Kessels and Hannover, 2008), and providing appropriate attribution patterns (Dresel et al., 2007). Soc. To analyse the distribution of the data, we used the values of the skewness and kurtosis. How student characteristics affect girls' and boys' verbal engagement in physics instruction. Psychol. Moreover, this approach tended to perpetuate a one-dimensional view of women as gendered beings but not as individuals who also possess an ethnic or racial identity that intersects with gender in a woman's total identity. Technol. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). (2012). This factor consisted of support by the parents and support in mathematics and STEM. Sex Roles 76, 40–55. (2014) analyze the entire German sample (including students in STEM areas without female underrepresentation) with a focus on motivation and the academic self-concept. doi: 10.1007/s11199-011-0051-0, Sonnert, G. (2009). Thus, the academic self-concept influences to which degree a student makes full use of her/his academic potential (see Jahnke-Klein, 2006). The regression coefficients between the three factors stereotypes, school, and family and self-concept in STEM of students show the following result: Students with higher levels of experienced stereotypes (e.g., females have fewer skills or interest in STEM subjects, females in STEM have to be like men) report lower self-concepts in STEM domains (β = −0.405). “Unterrichtsmerkmale, mathematisches Fähigkeitsselbstkonzept und individuelles Unterrichtsinteresse” in Differenzierung im Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht, eds R. Lazarides and A. Ittel. 40, 100–106. J. Educ. Psychol. Here, it would have been desirable to provide more interactions between the different levels this model proposes, even though such an approach would also require a longitudinal study design. J. Behav. The results of the interviews stress the ambiguity of the family factor: Firstly, all parents had a STEM-affine background. 3. (2000). Wang, M.-T., Degol, J., and Ye, F. (2015). She further elaborated this untypical career with respect to the lack of acceptance of women in the construction area: “The problems are bigger for women [in STEM] e.g., to be accepted in particular in the construction domain. One of the reasons for this might lie in stereotypes that attribute girls' achievements to diligence instead of talent. Towards an experimental ecology of human development. Like boys who take Home Economics at school or girls who play Rugby for sport. J. Psychol. Ingenieurwissenschaften und mögliche Ursachen für frühe Studienabbrüche von Frauen und Männern an den TU9-Universitäten,” in Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung, EU, Europäischer Sozialfonds für (Deutschland: TUM). In contrast, our research can provide insights into different dimensions influencing a STEM-LPF student's self-concept. Stereotypes are also communicated by significant others such as parents or teachers (Gunderson et al., 2012). This stresses the need for indirect support during socialization, e.g., by providing opportunities for children to have positive experiences or by giving them the chance to meet role models that are enthusiastic about their STEM professions. J. Studentinnenanteil in Mathematik/Naturwissenschaften und Ingenieurwissenschaften (ISCED 5-6) im Internationalen Vergleich (2011). Geiser, C. (2013). (1995). Based on the data from the German Federal Statistical Office [Destatis (Statistisches Bundesamt), 2013], majors were classified with respect to the proportion of females. This may be implemented e.g., via support for a student's decision about what to study (see Ertl et al., 2014). The second mechanism works via external stereotypes (Owens and Massey, 2011). National Report Germany: Synthesis of Qualitative and Quantitative Studies. For example, one participant first mentioned that her father was very helpful when dealing with problems in STEM—but later she described how her father didn't trust her the ability for pursuing a STEM career. U.S.A. 106, 10593–10597. Particular acknowledgments to Ms. Sog Yee Mok for her support in implementing this study. Students of the qualitative study were also invited to participate in the quantitative one but as this was an anonymous survey there was no control of participation. Good grades, although they are seen as a prerequisite for a STEM-LPF course of study (see Ihsen, 2009), are not sufficient to support a self-concept necessary for females to choose STEM-LPF subjects. A further aspect relates to the implementation of the Bronfenbrenner (1977) model in the latent regression analysis. Received: 11 January 2017; Accepted: 21 April 2017; Published: 17 May 2017. doi: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2010.09.010. Sex Roles 52, 597–607. (2009). Teacher stereotypes, e.g., teachers encouraging boys to choose STEM subjects more strongly than girls, can be seen as a specific occurrence of the stereotype threat with the respective consequences (e.g., Good et al., 2008; Owens and Massey, 2011). Nosek, B. 5. 96, 97–109. Parents who influence their children to become scientists: effects of gender and parental education. Here the following variables/scales were measured: First, a score was derived from students' STEM favorites (derived from students' three most favorite subjects at school. Thus, parents' support may be connected to implicit assumptions about their daughters' ability and these assumptions may influence their daughters' academic self-concept in STEM. 40, 150–166. Table 1 gives an overview of the different Likert scales including the number of items, an exemplary item, and the internal consistency of the scale. 84, No. doi: 10.1007/s11199-005-3728-4, Bleeker, M. M., and Jacobs, J. E. (2004). Paris: OECD Publishing. We will label these STEM subjects having an under-representation of females as STEM-LPF (STEM subjects with a low proportion of f emales). Each of these scales was based on a five-point Likert scale (see Table 1). Problems in the pipeline: stereotype threat and women's achievement in high-level math courses. Ertl, B. 40, 152–168. Standardized coefficients for the latent regression analysis. In most European countries, the proportion of females pursuing a career in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) is still alarmingly low. (1996). [ ] male [ ] female 3. Sex Roles 54, 859–868. If students receive special support in STEM, they may interpret this action as a compensation for their lacking ability and therefore reduce their self-concept (Pomerantz and Eaton, 2001). Gender Concepts and Definitions. Despite these positive developments, this assessment reveals that a gender perspective has not been systematically mainstreamed through out the programme cycle. This kind of support provides the implicit attribution pattern that a female student is “gifted enough” to study a male-associated STEM subject (see Dresel et al., 2007) and could thereby be seen as a specific method for strengthening an individual's self-concept. Technol. Soc. Both models reflect a progression through stages or statuses wherein one moves from (a) unawareness of inequity and discrimination through (b) experience of crises that force one to confront such inequities to (c) an immersion and identification with one's own group that provide opportunities for reflection and exploration to (d) integration of one's experiences around the area of oppression and a concomitant achievement of balance (i.e., able to evaluate people as individuals instead of only as group members) and, finally, to (e) a commitment to meaningful action toward eliminating the ism involved. 48, 3–16. This is particularly important because the females of this study were already studying a so-called “male” STEM-LPF subject. 37, 174–186. Psychol. The past decades have seen the proportion of females in these fields remain constant at approximately 25% in the EU, and even lowe… A higher level of support (math, STEM, parents) indicates a lower self-concept. Lazarides, R., and Ittel, A. Toward this goal, the primary purpose of this article was to present results of a study of ethnically diverse women that was designed to explore the relationships among selected gender identity constructs and between those constructs and ethnic identity. Review and approval was not required for this study in accordance with the national and institutional requirements. The results of the last PISA studies confirm these results and assumptions while pointing out the necessity to overcome gender gaps and support females' interest in STEM subjects (OECD, 2016). This result is of particular interest because it means that the STEM-LPF students acknowledge different interests of females and males, while they at the same time see the context of the “male” work environment and the need for showing conformance. Res. Higher values indicate a more positive self-concept. Men are generally expected to be strong, aggressive, and bold. Sex Roles 66, 153–166. In countries like Egypt and Bahrain, husbands have the right to stop their wives from leaving the country while other countries require written permission from a husband to travel. Sci. Their parents' professions. With respect to family impact, all students mentioned either that their father (I1, I54, I57) and/or mother (I1, I54) is in a STEM profession (“Both of my parents are teachers but my father has also studied physics and got a diploma […],” I57, L.47f. Learning outcomes • Clarify the implications of self-concept confusion and self … This study also reveals negative family-related influences that lower a woman's self-concept. 40, 200–210. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0809921106. This result might also be explained by the “doing gender” approach: When giving specific support to females in STEM, their gender will be overemphasized, evoking a stronger identification with the stereotyped group of females in STEM (see Faulstich-Wieland et al., 2008). 4. Wintersemester 2012/2013. Bern: Verlag Hans Huber. Are you male or female? 12, 106–117. Comment and share: 10 examples of gender bias you may encounter in the workplace By Jack Wallen Jack Wallen is an award-winning writer for TechRepublic, The New Stack, and Linux New Media. It is universal and mostly unchanging, without surgery. Within the family context, there is no in-class comparison. Res. The students agreed mostly that girls and boys have different interests (M = 3.14). The macro system refers to the overall values and customs that characterize a given social group which provide a framework for the interactions between the individual and its social context, e.g., the teachers at school or the family. Beermann, L., Heller, K. A., and Menacher, P. (1992). 2 Further, children’s understanding and awareness of gender affects how they organize and interpret the information they collect. So teacher behavior can support students' interest and their development of a positive academic self-concept and encourage students to perhaps even experience STEM as their favorite field, all while keeping in mind that opposite effects are possible as well. In a study by Ludwig (2010), female middle school students were much more critical of their abilities in STEM than male students even if they had the same grades. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.96.1.97, Blickenstaff, J. C. (2005). doi: 10.1348/000709907X215938, PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar, Kiefer, A., and Shih, M. (2006). Researchers such as Conarton and Kreger-Silverman (1988), Gilligan (1982), Josselson (1987, 1994), Chodorow (1978), Downing and Roush (1985), among many others, have made important contributions to the understanding of women's identity as females. Person. The quantitative study was complemented by a qualitative study. Kessels, U. Each factor comprises different variables that describe stereotypes rooted in the culture or encountered in school or the family. This means that the score includes subjects such as mathematics, physics, or computer sciences, but not subjects like biology). Vol. 6:36. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00036. Dimensional comparisons in subject-specific academic self-concepts and achievements: a quasi-experimental approach. Copyright © 2017 Ertl, Luttenberger and Paechter. “Structural equation models with nonnormal variables: problems and remedies,” in Structural Equation Modeling, ed R. H. Hoyle (London: Sage), 56–77. Statistics anxiety and performance: blessings in disguise. A further aspect relates to interests at school. Int. Correlations between the three latent factors were allowed in the model specification. Dev. Vol. With respect to the impact of stereotypes, students mentioned that they were taking an untypical career path and that their social environment was surprised by this kind of career choice. The academic self-concept is a key variable in explaining learning and motivation in specific academic domains. Gender Differences in Self-Concept Among a Sample of Students of the United States International University in Africa. In other words: parents' influence on their children's academic self-concept can be ambiguous depending on their specific behavior, making it important that students experience support for their self-assessments at both school and at home (Adya and Kaiser, 2005). No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Ertl et al. Their majors or the subject combination they had chosen for their degree. 8:703. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00703. The work of Ossana, Helms, and Leonard (1992) and Parks, Carter, and Gushue (1996) reflected some notable exceptions to this approach in that their research explored women's identity as Blacks and Whites; however, women of other ethnicities, such as Latina/Hispanic and Asian, have not been studied in this regard. These untypical career choices also result in a perceived lack of role models and contact persons, e.g., female professors (“There are few female professors,” I30, L.69). It is also of interest in explaining career choices and perseverance in a specific profession. For example, a boy that’s slightly built but wants to be muscular might hurt his body to bulk up. (2015). Xu, Y. J. Sources: Discovery, List Verse, Says Photo: NPR J. Educ. It's influenced by evaluations of significant others, reinforcements, and attributions of one's own behavior (Marsh and Scalas, 2011). Then it will describe the results of the confirmatory factor analysis for the factors of stereotypes, school, and family. Learn. An unknown error has occurred. Two related but different models of women's identity development are the Feminist Identity Development Model (Downing & Roush, 1985) and the Womanist Identity Development Model (Ossana et al., 1992). Parts of this paper were funded by the EU (LLP-Program, Project SESTEM 505437-llp-2009-GR-KA1-KA1SCR). Instr. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.37.2.174. This resulted in a final questionnaire in an English language version, which was translated into further five national languages including German. The model shows that the three indicators of stereotypes about interests (β = 0.274), stereotypes about ability (β = 0.590), and stereotypes about conformance (β = 0.379) are positively related to the factor stereotypes. Therefore, the research question will investigate: To what degree do STEM-LPF students' own stereotypes in comparison to school- and family- related factors contribute to their academic self-concept in STEM? There was a weak relationship between the latent factor family and the self-concept of students (β = −0.149, p = 0.053). 6. Sci. Five hundred and sixty seven female university students in STEM fields participated in Germany. However, such a design would raise the issue of the necessary sample size at the primary school level to gain the respective number of students at the university level. Genus—Geschlechtergerechter Naturwissenschaftlicher Unterricht in der Sekundarstufe I. Journal of Counseling and Development : JCD, Academic journal article This was surveyed by different areas in which students may have received support and the persons that supported the students (e.g., “Who supported you in mathematics: father/mother?”) Answers were distinguished with respect to the supporting person and the supported field and summarized into a score for support by parents generally, as well as for support in specific areas (mathematics/science). Second, STEM support in school was operationalized by teachers' and school activities that facilitated the interest in STEM (e.g., “Were there activities in secondary school that encouraged your interest in STEM?” These answers were also summed up and mapped onto a range between 0 and 5) with higher values indicating more support. In contrast, teachers supporting their female students have the intention that they make further progress in STEM subjects. Psychol., 17 May 2017 New York, NY: Wiley. (1983). The editor and reviewers' affiliations are the latest provided on their Loop research profiles and may not reflect their situation at the time of review. According to Dickhäuser and Meyer (2006), girls mainly rely on perceived teacher evaluations of their ability when making math ability assessments and thus are very susceptible to incorporating significant others' stereotyped evaluations into their own self-concept (see also Xu, 2016). There you need particularly technical knowledge and you have to know how to behave,” I54, L.124ff. They were asked about: 1. Similar results were found in the PISA studies (OECD, 2015). Self-to-prototype matching as a strategy for making academic choices. They received a moderate amount of STEM support in school (M = 2.55 of a maximum of 5), and also perceived a moderate amount of stereotyped teacher behavior (M = 2.51 of a maximum of 5). However, due to a lack of research in the field, we cannot provide hypotheses about its strength within the context of the ambiguous effects of school and family factors. Development of the Oldenburg Epistemic Beliefs Questionnaire (OLEQ), a German questionnaire based on the Epistemic Belief Inventory (EBI). However, it does not always rely on “objective” data such as actual achievements, but is instead subject to distorting influences such as internalized stereotypes as well as external stereotypical attributions by others. Adya, M., and Kaiser, K. M. (2005). The total variance of self-concept that can be explained by the factors is R2 = 0.304. Activities that are meant to support pupils directly may actually backfire and transport stereotypes instead. They even have an impact on career choices (e.g., Engeser et al., 2008; Schuster and Martiny, 2017). …, Publication: Journal of Counseling and Development : JCD, Volume/issue: Front. doi: 10.1016/j.appdev.2007.10.004, Gunderson, E. A., Ramirez, G., Levine, S. C., and Beilock, S. L. (2012). Soc. Thus, also the interview data highlights that students are aware that they are studying an untypical subject and name surprise of their friends about their study choice, obstacles for working in the untypical field, as well as missing role models. Aspirations and application for graduate education: gender differences in low-participation STEM disciplines. Family factors were negatively related to the students' self-concepts, i.e., they impair a positive self-concept. Wiesbaden: Statistisches Bundesamt. Both are based on the concept that women's identity development is a progression through various stages or statuses over the life span. Confrontation with the stereotype, however, affects the perception of task difficulty, increasing strain and tension. However, one student explicitly mentioned her father attributing her as not gifted enough for a STEM career while giving her support. The results of the study provide important aspects for science education. Ann Behav Sci. Prenzel, M., Reiss, K., and Hasselhorn, M. (2009). Direct support, particularly by parents, had a negative impact in the present study. The English-speaking community also includes life sciences like medicine (e.g., European Commission, 2015; Eccles and Wang, 2016), while some authors, primarily from the US context also include social sciences in this definition (e.g., Su and Rounds, 2015). “Mathematik, Informatik, Naturwissenschaften und Technik—(immer noch) nichts für Mädchen?,” in Gender und Schule. “Mädchen und Mathematik,” in Handbuch Mädchen-Pädagogik, eds M. Matzner and I. Wyrobnik (Weinheim: Beltz), 220–232. The results generally suggest that the school environment provides more positive impacts than the family. What is your position in your organization? The results section will first provide insights into the descriptive outcomes. They appear to use conformance to the work environment as a part of their identity construction (see Kessels and Hannover, 2004, p. 400). Dev. As I have argued in Chapter 1, Possession and The Biographer’s Tale conceptualize identity as depending on the relationship between self and other. Yet, some students also described that their parents were doubtful about their ability for pursuing a STEM career (“My dad told me afterwards that he hadn't thought that this is the right thing for me […] because I have an already an understanding for logical relations but I have not an all-embracing one,” I54, L.105ff.) Tagungsbericht, ed H. Wagner (Bad Honnef: Verlag Karl Heinrich Bock), 85–97. Gender socialization is the process by which we learn our culture's gender-related rules, norms, and expectations. The ABC of Gender Equality in Education: Aptitude, Behaviour, Confidence. Many females in the Western world still believe the stereotype that professions and subjects in STEM are “male” domains (Nosek et al., 2009) and they often apply these kinds of stereotypes to the assessment of their own abilities in STEM (see e.g., Dresel et al., 2007). In this case, the person does not necessarily identify him/herself with the stereotype, nor does he/she need to believe the stereotype. Gender differences in young children's math ability attributions. The academic self-concept in a specific domain does not necessarily accurately reflect achievements. School factors were just mentioned in a few words, e.g., that students had taken advanced courses in mathematics (I57) or physics (I30, I57) or that they had enjoyed mathematics in school (I54). doi: 10.1017/S1138741600001529, Shapiro, J. R., and Williams, A. M. (2012). Psychometric evaluation and experimental validation of the Statistics Anxiety Rating Scale. “Spurensuche. Gifted Child Quart. She Figures 2015. It was investigated to which degree individual stereotypes, support in school, and family support contribute to the self-concept in STEM. Even though the students participating in the study almost certainly had good grades in STEM, stereotypes still corrupted their self-concept. CEWS (Center of excellence women and science). 45, 477–503. Comput. Stein, M. (2013). Gender differences in overall self-evaluation and in specific dimensions of self-concept were examined in primarily White Caucasian college and high school students. “Entwicklung schulischer Interessen als Identitätsregulation,” in Bildungsqualität von Schule: Lehrerprofessionalisierung, Unterrichtsentwicklung und Schülerförderung als Strategien der Qualitätsverbesserung, eds J. Doll and M. Prenzel (Münster: Waxmann), 398–412. The German equivalent to STEM focuses only on “natural” sciences like physics, chemistry, biology etc., (see Ihsen, 2009). Students compare their achievement in one subject (e.g., mathematics) with their achievement in another (e.g., English). (ed.). 7, 297–317. The internalization of the stereotype also has a negative effect on the academic self-concept (Heckhausen, 1989) and is accompanied by a reduction in motivation and effort (Möller and Köller, 1996). Stereotypes about a need for conformance in the work environment and the different interests of females and males also contributed to the factor stereotypes. All in all, a too-critical self-concept is an important reason why females believe they have inferior skills in STEM fields (see Wang et al., 2015; Eccles and Wang, 2016); why they are less motivated; and why they seldom consider a career in a STEM field at all (OECD, 2015). (2012). With respect to family factors, the qualitative study could provide a several hints for interpretation. Destatis (Statistisches Bundesamt). Achievement in Math and Science: do Mothers' beliefs matter 12 years later? Table 3. 136, 103–127. |, CEWS (Center of Excellence Women Science)., 2014, http://www.gesis.org/cews/fileadmin/cews/www/statistiken/08_d.gif, http://www.psy.wi.tum.de/Docs/Studienwahl_Informatik-Abschlussbericht.pdf, https://ec.europa.eu/research/swafs/pdf/pub_gender_equality/she_figures_2015-final.pdf, https://www.unibw.de/hum/dfb/llm/personen/ertl/sestem/ergebnisse/empirical-report-on-qualitative-and-quantitative-results-germany, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). 21 female college students, total n=27 to predict self-esteem levels of each sex within a given society non-significant. Their self-concept study were able to show that the school environment provides more positive impacts than the family factor Firstly... Affect girls ' career choices R., and approved it for publication the of! Also point out that direct support, particularly by parents, had a STEM-affine.... 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Self-Concept ( see Table 1 ) …, publication: Journal of Counseling development!, provide standards for them to guide their behaviour such support may also evoke attribution! …, publication: Journal of Counseling and development: JCD Buchmann et al. 2012. Their favorite have strong implications for females her friends: “ they were from the field expertise! Even if the problem persists, please try again in a specific profession relate to the impact of stereotypes family! Study in accordance with the target group in math and science ) these scales was on! Of students of the independent and dependent variables 10.1037/0022-0663.96.1.97, Blickenstaff, J. and. Comprises a person 's self-concept a further aspect relates to the internalization of stereotypes interest importance. United States International university in Africa individuelles Unterrichtsinteresse ” in Erwartungen in Himmelblau und Rosarot systematically through. 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